Subject: Transparency and credibility of factual facts
Posted: 07 September 2023 at 6:24am
Inventionsof Muslims
The Muslims werekeenly interested in physics and chemistry, and their findings and methodspaved the way for modern physicists such as Albert Einstein. Al-Hasan ibnal-Haytham – known as Alhazen – worked with optics and is, according to severalhistorians, the first modern scientist. In his studies, he established, amongother things, that light consists of particles – a theory that Einsteinreceived the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921 for proving.
TheQur'an motivated the Muslims to study and explore everything around them tosuch an extent that they founded modern experimental science as we know ittoday. Some of the scientific inventions made by Muslim scholars in the MiddleAges, when Europe was in darkness and backwardness, are mentioned below.
Withthe Christian conquest of Spain, the research of the Muslim scholars wastranslated into Latin. The works contributed significantly to the so-calledscientific revolution in the 16th century, which laid the foundation for modernscience in Europe.
Alcohol anddistillation
Whilemany of the medieval chemists practiced alchemy, Arab al-Kindi rejected theoccult arts. Instead, he worked purposefully to separate e.g. metals and plantsinto components so that their composition and properties could be investigated.Among other things. al-Kindi wanted to learn why wine has an intoxicatingeffect. He therefore heated wine in special flasks which were connected bypipes. Alcohol evaporates at a lower temperature than water, and with hisprimitive distillation apparatus, al-Kindi became the first to isolate purealcohol. The Muslims used the alcohol for medicinal purposes and for themanufacture of make-up and perfumes.
Pharmacies
Specialistshops with thoroughly checked medicines were widespread in Baghdad as early asthe 8th century. The pharmacies were privately owned, and the knowledge ofmixing, storing and preserving the remedies was passed down from father to son.Regularly, the shops were inspected by government officials who checked theweight and the purity of the funds. Apothecaries who cheated on the scales orsold impure medicines were punished corporal and publicly, so that everyonecould see that this kind of breach of public trust was unacceptable.
Arabapothecaries wrote extensively about their work, and the writings eventuallyfound their way to European scholars and were translated into Latin. Inparticular, the writings of the Andalusian ibn al-Wafid were popular amongEuropeans. Through the translations, the art of apothecary spread throughoutEurope.
Bloodcirculation
Thehistory of medicine was rewritten in 1924, when an Egyptian doctor found a700-year-old manuscript. The book, written by the Syrian scholar ibn al-Nafisin 1242, is the first to tell that the blood is pumped around the human body.Ibn al-Nafis describes how the heart's two chambers work and how the blood isoxygenated in the lungs along the way.
Itwas not until 1957 that ibn al-Nafis was recognized for his discoveries. Untilthen, the discovery of blood circulation had been attributed to the BritishWilliam Harvey, who described the process in 1628.
Categorization
Inhis work The Book of Secrets, the chemist al-Razi – also called Rhazes in theWest – divides chemical substances into four categories: animal, vegetable,mineral and derivatives of the three. He divided minerals into six groupsaccording to their properties – the modern periodic table is set up accordingto the same principle. The groupings themselves are far from today'scategorization of chemical substances, but the idea of dividing the substancesaccording to observations and experiments – instead of philosophicalconsiderations – was revolutionary and an expression of modern scientificthinking.
Code breaking
Shift codes have beenpopular throughout history when kings and generals needed to send hiddenmessages. The principle is based on the sender shifting the letters of thealphabet so that they fill up space with other letters. For example,"a" became "d" if all letters were moved three places.
Thecode was as good as unbreakable until the Arab mathematician al-Kindi analyzedthe Koran in the 8th century and found that the frequency of letters in a textvaried. For example, characters corresponding to "a" and"i" occur most frequently in Arabic. That knowledge could be used tocalculate what the letters in a code meant, al-Kindi found out. His method hassince formed the basis of code breaking.
Optics
Amongthe ancient Greeks, the scholar al-Hasan ibn al-Haytham – known as Alhazen –had read that man could see because the eyes emitted light. Alhazen stronglydisagreed and was the first to establish that the eyes did in fact receivelight.
Hecarried out a large number of experiments with light, shade and color, which hezealously documented. According to several historians, this process makesAlhazen the first modern scientist. In his studies, he established, among otherthings, that light consists of particles – a theory that Einstein received theNobel Prize in Physics in 1921 for proving.
Robots
Asearly as the 13th century, the Muslims made use of mechanical aids. In a bookfrom 1206, the multi-genius al-Jazari describes 50 mechanical devices. Amongthe inventions is a humanoid robot that serves tea. Another device consisted ofa boat with four mechanical musicians, which has been used for entertainment atparties. It has been able to be programmed to play different melodies and showmore than 50 facial expressions and movements.
Water pumps
The distribution ofthe scarce amounts of water in the Middle East required great ingenuity andtechnical ingenuity. The inventor al-Jazari possessed both parts in abundance.Around the year 1200, he constructed five water pumps, one of which constituteda technical revolution. Using an ingenious system of gears and pistons, thepump sent water up a channel which carried it out to the fields. Al-Jazari'sinventions – especially his advanced use of a crankshaft – later became ofgreat use in Europe, where the shaft contributed to the great technicaladvances of the 15th century.
Windmills
Already in the 6thcentury, the Muslims began to use wind to drive mills all over the Middle East.The wind was, among other things, used to grind grain and pump water, which wasto be used for irrigation of fields and gardens. Historians believe thatwindmills were brought to Europe by the Christian Crusaders, who becameacquainted with them in the 12th century.
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